Niddah (or nidah; Hebrew: I am currently caught up in an emotional affair. He is divorced and i am not. We both feel absolutely terrible after engaging in long chats via email and texts, ( some conversations were quite sexual. Edith Cowan University Research Online ECU Publications 2012 2012 Ethical Dilemmas during mergers, acquisitions and takeovers Edmond La Vertu Edith Cowan University Llandis Barratt-Pugh Edith Cowan University This article was. ![]() ![]() An Evolutionary Analysis and Empirical Review. The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at Psychol Bull. See other articles in PMC that cite the published article. Abstract. What is compassion? And how did it evolve? In this review, we integrate three evolutionary arguments that converge on the hypothesis that compassion evolved as a distinct affective experience whose primary function is to facilitate cooperation and protection of the weak and those who suffer. Our empirical review reveals compassion to have distinct appraisal processes attuned to undeserved suffering, distinct signaling behavior related to caregiving patterns of touch, posture, and vocalization, and a phenomenological experience and physiological response that orients the individual to social approach. Gemstone and Crystal Reference Book The Science & Metaphysical Heather’Caton’MSW’. Shamanic Crystals Judy Hall Extracted from The Crystal Bible, New Crystals and Healing Stones and The Crystal Encyclopedia (l50 stones not in the Crystal Bible) Most shamanic crystals are high vibration stones that bring about. PERSONALITY PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Liberals and Conservatives Rely on Different Sets of Moral Foundations Jesse Graham, Jonathan Haidt, and Brian A. Nosek University of Virginia How and why do moral judgments. Free Law of Attraction PDF eBook Library. If you are not a member of the Law-of-Attraction Free eBook Library, please subscribe to my monthly newsletter, Law of Attraction News. Fertility & Pregnancy Reflexology with Gemma Nelson, Dubai. Feel more positive, relaxed, with improved sleep & better menstrual cycles. Bring the body into a state of balance, reducing stress levels to help your chance of. Sympathy (from the Greek words syn 'together' and pathos 'feeling' which means 'fellow-feeling') is the perception, understanding, and reaction to the distress or need of another life form. This empathic concern is driven by a. Jonathan Franzen; Jonathan Franzen is the author of Purity and four other novels, most recently The Corrections and Freedom, and five works of nonfiction and translation, including Farther Away and The Kraus Project, all. This response profile of compassion differs from those of distress, sadness, and love, suggesting that compassion is indeed a distinct emotion. We conclude by considering how compassion shapes moral judgment and action, how it varies across different cultures, and how it may engage specific patterns of neural activation, as well as emerging directions of research. Keywords: Compassion, Empathy, Sympathy, Prosocial Behavior, Altruism. Compassion is controversial. Within studies of morality, theoretical claims about compassion reach contrasting conclusions: some theorists consider compassion to be an unreliable guide to judgments about right and wrong, whereas others view compassion as a source of principled moral judgment (Haidt, 2. Nussbaum, 1. 99. 6, 2. Within debates about the nature of altruism, researchers have sought to document that a brief state like compassion is a proximal determinant of prosocial behavior (Batson & Shaw, 1. Eisenberg & Miller, 1. Hoffman, 1. 98. 1). Within evolutionist thought, controversies have swirled around whether compassion and sympathy are the products of evolutionary processes, as Darwin assumed, or tendencies too costly for the self to align with the tenets of evolutionary theory (Cronin, 1. These debates highlight the question that motivates the present review: What is compassion? Ironically, despite pervasive theoretical claims and numerous studies of a state- like episode of compassion, it is largely absent from traditional emotion taxonomies and research (e. Boucher & Brandt, 1. Ekman, 1. 99. 9; Izard, 1. Roseman, Spindel, & Jose, 1. Smith & Ellsworth, 1. Tomkins, 1. 98. 4; for an exception, see Lazarus, 1. Instead, compassion has been described as a vicarious experience of another's distress (e. Ekman, 2. 00. 3; Hoffman, 1. Shaver, Schwartz, Kirson & O'Connor, 1. Post, 2. 00. 2; Sprecher & Fehr, 2. Underwood, 2. 00. Although recent authors have treated compassion as an emotion (e. Batson, 1. 99. 1; Haidt, 2. Sober & Wilson, 1. What is compassion?”The central goal of this paper, therefore, is to present a functional analysis of compassion, and to review the evidence related to what is known about the appraised antecedents, experience, display behavior, and physiology associated with compassion. Before delving into our own theoretical account, we clarify our definition of compassion and distinguish it from related states. Definitions of Compassion and Levels of Analysis of Affective Experience. We define compassion as the feeling that arises in witnessing another's suffering and that motivates a subsequent desire to help (for similar definitions, see Lazarus, 1. Nussbaum, 1. 99. 6, 2. Table 1). This definition conceptualizes compassion as an affective state defined by a specific subjective feeling, and differs from treatments of compassion as an attitude (Blum, 1. Sprecher & Fehr, 2. Post, 2. 00. 2; Wisp. This definition also clearly differentiates compassion from empathy, which refers to the vicarious experience of another's emotions (Lazarus, 1. Theoretical Positions on Compassion as Emotion. Other researchers have referred to this kind of other oriented state with different terms (see Wisp. For example, Batson defines empathy as a family of responses to another “that are more other- focused than self- focused, including feelings of sympathy, compassion, tenderness, and the like” (Batson, 1. Similarly, Davis's empathic concern scale “assesses . Eisenberg and colleagues (1. Darwin, 1. 87. 1; Eisenberg, Michalik, Spinrad, Hofer, Kupfer, et al., 2. Feather, 2. 00. 6; Post, 2. Wisp. The term pity is sometimes used to describe a state close to what we conceptualize as compassion (Aristotle as discussed in Nussbaum, 1. Weiner, Graham, & Chandler, 1. Weiner, Perry & Magnusson, 1. Pity, however, involves the additional appraisal of feeling concern for someone considered inferior to the self (Ben Ze'ev, 2. Fiske, Cuddy, Glick & Xu, 2. We prefer the term compassion because it encompasses a slightly broader set of states than sympathy (Nussbaum, 1. We would place the states labeled with terms like “sympathy,” “pity,” and “empathic concern” into a family of compassion- related states that center upon a concern for ameliorating the suffering of another individual (for discussion of the concept of emotion families, see Ekman, 1. As part of an emotion family, these states likely share central features with compassion: similar antecedents, key appraisal components, core action tendencies, and similar physiological responses and signal behaviors. They likely differ from compassion in terms of peripheral appraisals (for example appraised dominance in the case of pity) and certain display behaviors (Keltner & Lerner, 2. Empirical studies support this emotion- family approach to compassion and closely related states. Lexical studies of emotion terms in English (Campos, Shiota, Gonzaga, Keltner, Goetz & Shin, 2. Shaver et al., 1. Indonesian (Shaver, Murdaya, & Fraley, 2. Chinese, and Italian (Shaver, Wu, & Schwartz, 1. In our own laboratory, participants' sorting of 1. Campos et al., 2. A study of both positive and negative emotion terms, however, found that sympathy and pity were sometimes placed in a positive emotion category with compassion, but more often placed in a category of sadness- related terms (Shaver et al., 1. Several self- report studies lend further credence to the claim that compassion and sympathy are closely related, and plausible members of an emotion family. These studies consistently reveal that ratings of compassionate and sympathetic load on a common factor (Batson, Fultz, & Schoenrade, 1. Fultz, Schaller, & Cialdini, 1. Many studies aggregate self- reports of more than one term, but others use only single- item measures or terms that are more appropriate to children's vocabulary (see Table 2 for a summary). In light of these findings, in the present review we synthesize what is known about compassion, pity, and sympathy, with an eye towards possible distinctions within this family. A critical need is for further research on the distinctions between compassion, sympathy, and pity. Antecedents, Appraisals, and Subjective Experience of the Compassionate Response. Empirical studies of compassion can also be organized according to a levels of analysis framework for studying affective experiences (Kahneman, 1. Rosenberg, 1. 99. Emotions represent a first level of analysis, and are brief, context- specific responses focused on a clear cause (Ekman, 1. Although compassion is listed in few emotion taxonomies, numerous studies have examined the characteristics of brief experiences of compassion, or related states such as sympathy or empathic concern, which we synthesize in this review. At a second level of analysis, moods or sentiments are assumed to be longer lasting than emotions, less focused on a particular cause, and less context- bound than specific emotions (Watson & Tellegen, 1. In a later section we will consider how brief experiences of compassion might develop into enduring sentiments. Finally, emotional traits refer to general styles of emotional responses that persist across context and time (Larsen & Ketelaar, 1. Mc. Cullough, Emmons, & Tsang, 2. Shiota, Keltner, & John, 2. Studies of people prone to feeling compassion, or related states like empathic concern, are relevant to an understanding of what compassion is, given the supposition that emotional traits share core appraisals and action tendencies with the associated emotional state. Numerous studies of compassion, which we consider here, have examined trait- like tendencies towards briefer experiences of the state. Later we will consider how brief experiences of compassion might interact with the trait- like tendency to experience compassion. Theoretical Accounts of Compassion. Three alternative theoretical approaches to compassion can be discerned in the literature (see Table 1), and yield contrasting predictions that we will assess in our empirical review. A first account holds that compassion is another name for empathic distress (e. Ekman, 2. 00. 3; Hoffman, 1. People often mirror the emotions of those around them and vicariously experience others' emotions (Hatfield, Cacioppo, & Rapson, 1. From the empathic distress perspective, compassion is simply a label that people apply to their vicarious experience of distress in response to another person's suffering. The clear implication is that the state of compassion should be associated with the expressive behavior, physiological response, and underlying appraisals of the state it is mirroring, most likely distress, pain, sadness, or fear. A second account holds that compassion is not its own emotion, but rather a variant or blend of sadness or love (e. Post, 2. 00. 2; Shaver et al., 1. Sprecher & Fehr, 2. Underwood, 2. 00. In English, lay conceptions of compassion often intermingle with conceptions of sadness and love (Shaver et al., 1. In Shaver and colleagues' influential prototype analysis of emotion terms, U. S. Participants categorized the word compassion most often with love, tenderness, and caring.
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